RECOMMENDATIONS, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, REFERENCES

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

CBA is an economic activity that will almost certainly expand in the short term, and is very likely to continue into the long term for many species. CBA is practised because it has become necessary as a livelihood, as an alternative means to controlling access of fishery resources, to meet market demand and, if practised properly, to enhance yield.

It does not necessarily, or even desirably, lead to HBA and does not demonstrably take pressure off wild stocks. For example, despite decades of Anguilla CBA, successful HBA is far from certain. Moreover, new species will likely become the focus of CBA while a few species will eventually move to successful hatchery production. Even in the latter case, as for groupers, a mixed model might persist whereby both HBA and CBA practices occur; it took over 10 years to reach successful grouper HBA for just a few species while many others (e.g. the Hong Kong grouper Epinephelus akaara) continue to be exploited under CBA despite capacity for HBA. The bottom line, it seems, is that CBA is here to stay and means must be sought to ensure its sustainable practice. Whether or not CBA, or HBA, will take pressure off wild fisheries is entirely another matter that would require specific legislation whereby CBA development is balanced by a corresponding and specific reduction of fishing pressure in concert with CBA expansion.

 

While, for example, the supply of hatchery-reared juveniles for backyard grow-out of groupers in Indonesia is claimed to have reduced cyanide fishing by replacing fishing with culture practices, there are no quantitative data to support this and no relevant legislation to mandate a the shift from capture to culture.
CBA is truly a hybrid between capture fisheries and aquaculture, with many of the advantages and disadvantages inherent in both activities. Important as an alternative livelihood, CBA also offers opportunities for the development of HBA. However, CBA is not necessarily a stepping stone between the two but rather an activity in its own right which will certainly continue. Because of the impacts and implications of CBA, it needs to be acknowledged as distinct sector and integrated and managed accordingly as a specialized, albeit little understood type of fishery. This means that the objectives of CBA must be clear, the risks identified, activities clearly defined, and practices developed or modified to address the negative aspects of the practice and enhance the benefits.
Based on the present review, eight specific recommendations are proposed to improve CBA practices in a way that will address many of the shortcomings documented:
• Precautionary approach and FAO Code of Conduct: There is a need to adopt the precautionary approach in CBA. There is a little biological understanding of early life history stages of species under CBA, and they receive negligible management attention. Moreover, the principles and guidelines of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries should be applied because CBA involves capture fisheries.
• Mortality: There is a need to be realistic. While very early settlement stage larvae almost certainly suffer high mortality reducible by judicious removal from the wild and culture, propagules are not infinite for any species and the highly focused removal of millions to billions of seed will ultimately compromise stocks. Much CBA is practised on older post-settlement stages, in effect capture fisheries of juveniles, that need to be managed accordingly. Management that takes such realities into account need to be developed for many of the CBA species reviewed, and training and outreach is needed to reduce mortalities associated with a range of capture, transfer and culture practices.
• Bycatch: In addition to a high capture and culture mortality, there is, for many of the representative species reviewed, a high and often diverse associated bycatch.
This aspect of these fisheries can severely undermine the perceived advantages of CBA and measures should be made to develop more selective gears, or, fish in a way that minimizes wasteful bycatch.
• Objectives of CBA: The objective(s) of CBA must be clear if it is to capitalize on its potential and be managed and practised sustainably. Nowadays, CBA is largely an economic activity involving many high value species and not necessarily practised with the objective of producing basic, low-cost, seafood for sustenance.
It is, therefore, not currently practised as an alternative to fishing for food per se. Rather, it is as an economic activity in its own right, provides livelihoods, and, perhaps, is a means of gaining access to, and control of, increasingly limited resources earlier in their life history. It is only by acknowledging its role in practice that it can be managed effectively.
• Management: Management and better practices are possible only when activities are recognized, acknowledged and documented. CBA needs to be monitored and a better understanding of its direct and indirect impacts on targeted and nontargeted (bycatch) species considerably better understood. Other impacts, such as the effects of fishing gears, have been widely acknowledged and need effective management. Considerations of equity of resource access and user conflicts should be factored into management plans. Moreover, even HBA will depend for genotype refreshment from natural broodstock, such that wild populations will continue to need management. Finally, for managing late stage CBA (e.g. as for tuna), if most juveniles removed are likely to survive to adulthood, it makes more biological sense to manage by number of fish in a quota, rather than by weight as is currently done.
• CBA to HBA: It is clear that not all CBA leads to HBA and that mixed models are likely to persist long into the future. For many species, the focus on CBA versus HBA will depend on economic factors and whether CBA moves to HBA is both an economic and a technical matter, and far from inevitable. It may not even be desirable that all mariculture becomes HBA because of the possible control on seed supply by big business that HBA would foster, with possible negative impacts on wild seed prices and livelihoods of seed collectors. Given the inevitable and probably advisable, mixed model, the relationships between the two activities need to be acknowledged and managed practically and realistically.
• Definitions: The perspectives on how to manage, understand and monitor CBA are heavily shaped by how it is defined and what are the objectives in its application.
The recent introduction of the term CBA has been enormously helpful in better understanding and more easily discussing it. However, the documentation of CBA-cultured species in FAO records appears to be unnecessarily complicated and somewhat misleading. We propose a simpler and more representative set of definitions that directly reflect the nature of CBA in relation to wild resources.
For documenting and reporting culture production, we suggest two major categories; “hatchery” and “non-hatchery” sources of seed. Under non-hatchery sources, a subdivision could be used to distinguish between “growing-out” (of eggs, larvae, very early post-settlement stages) and “fattening” (the increase in bulk of settled/juvenile animals or their maintenance until retail). The former would include spat, post-larvae and small juveniles of fish and invertebrates and the latter would include large juveniles and young adults, for example of groupers and tunas. The intention is to distinguish between seeds taken at very high natural mortality stages and seeds taken once natural mortality has likely dropped to near adult levels. Both categories of non-hatchery produced seed would need to be managed and monitored.
• Species cultured: The culture of fish centuries ago began with CBA practised on herbivorous and omnivorous species, such as carps, milkfish, mullets, eels and tilapias to address basic needs for food, while expensive, luxury, and carnivorous species appeared only after the 1940s (Ling, 1977; Beveridge and Little, 2002). If CBA is to be used for food security there has to be a greater focus on species that can provide cheap food and do not involve the many problems associated with carnivores in culture and capture. Again the “Objectives” of CBA need to be clear, i.e. why do we need CBA and how can we use it to best advantage? There are tradeoffs to different objectives and some are mutually exclusive: provision of livelihoods for seed supply may compromise the fishery of adults of the same stock; the use of ponds for expensive grouper culture may mean that cheaper food fishes are displaced; in both cases poorer communities might lose out; the removal of massive volumes of fish feed may compromise the feed species (many of them the young of cheap fish consumed by humans) captured, or the ecosystems they belong to. Without clear principles and guidelines, and a realistic evaluation of the constraints and problems associated with CBA, this form of culture cannot realize its full potential and, far worse, may further compromise natural marine resources and human communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are most grateful to the following for their assistance in providing information and support that enabled the completion of this report: Mr Jinbiao Liu (retired Senior Fisheries Officer, Fujian Province Fisheries Administration, China), Dr Vu Ngoc Ut (College of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University, Viet Nam), Mr Hanshen Wang (Fujian Province Fisheries Research Institute, China), Ms Maria Lourdes Cobo (Centro Nacional de Acuicultura e Investigaciones Marinas, Ecuador) and Ms Rachel Wong (Division of Ecology & Biodiversity, University of Hong Kong, China Hong Kong SAR). They are also grateful for funding from the Government of Japan (through a Trust Fund arrangement) for preparing the review paper, and from the Research Grants Council in China Hong Kong SAR for supporting Dr Min Liu and to the Swire Institute of Marine Science and the Department of Ecology & Biodiversity of the University of Hong Kong for general logistic support.

REFERENCES

Ahmed, M., Magnayon-Umali, G.A., Valmonte-Santos, R.A., Toledo, J., Lopez, N. & Torres, F. 2001. Bangus Fry Resource Assessment in the Philippines. ICLARM Technical Report 58. Manila, Philippines. 38 pp.
Allen, G.R. 1991. Field Guide to the Freshwater Fishes of New Guinea. Christensen Research Institute, Madang, Papua New Guinea. 147 pp.
Angell, C.A. 1992. Report of the Seminar on Mud Crab Culture and Trade. BOBP/ REP/51. Bay of Bengal Programme, Madras, India. 246 pp.
Arcenal, J.M.M. 2004. Sustainable farming of spiny lobster in western Mindanao, Philippines. In K.C. Williams, ed. Spiny Lobster Ecology and Exploitation in the South China Sea Region. Proceedings of a workshop held at the Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Viet Nam, July 2004, pp. 19−20. ACIAR Proceedings No. 120. Canberra, Australia. 73 pp.
Bagarinao, T. 1994. Systematics, distribution, genetics and life history of milkfish, Chanos chanos. Environmental Biology of Fishes 39(1): 23−41.
Bagarinao, T. 1998. Historical and current trends in milkfish farming in the Philippines. In S.S. De Silva, ed. Tropical Mariculture, pp. 381−422. Academic Press, USA.
Bagarinao, T. 1999. Ecology and Farming of Milkfish. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. Iloilo, the Philippines. 171 pp.
Bagarinao, T.U., Solis, N.B., Villaver, W.R. & Villaluz, A.C. 1986. Important Fish and Shrimp Fry in Philippine Coastal Waters: Identification, Collection and Handling. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. Iloilo, the Philippines. 51 pp.
Bell, J.D. 2004. Key issues for sustaining aquaculture production of the spiny lobster, Panulirus ornatus, in Viet Nam. In K.C. Williams, ed. Spiny Lobster Ecology and Exploitation in the South China Sea Region. Proceedings of a workshop held at the Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Viet Nam, July 2004, pp. 59−62.
Beveridge, C. M. & Little, D.C. 2002. The history of aquaculture in traditional societies.
In B.A. Costa-Pierce, ed. Ecological Aquaculture: the Evolution of the Blue Revolution, pp. 3−29. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
Beveridge, C. M., Ross, L. G., & Kelly, L. A. 1994. Aquaculture and biodiversity. Ambio 23: 497–502.
Björnsson, B., Hugason, K. & Gunnarsson, V.I. 2005. Cod Farming in Nordic Countries.
Summary of the main points from the conference held in Nordica Hotel, Reykjavik, 6–8 September 2005. 8 pp.
Boonyaratpalin, M., McCoy, E.W. & Chittapalapong, T. 1985. Snakehead Culture and Its Socio-economics in Thailand. NACA/WP/85/26. Bangkok, Thailand.
Booth, J., Davies, P. & Zane, C. 1999. Commercial scale collections of young rock lobster for aquaculture. In Proceedings of the World Aquaculture Meeting Abstracts, p. 84. Sydney, Australia.
Burton, C.A., MacMillan, J.T. & Learmouth, M.M. 2001. Shellfish ranching in the UK. Hydrobiologia 465: 1−5.
Chandrasekaran, V.A. & Natarajan, R. 1993. Mullet seed resources of Pichavaram mangrove, southeast coast of India. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 35(1-2): 167−174.
Chen, J.X. 2004. Present status and prospects of sea cucumber industry in China. In A.
Lovatelli, C. Conand, S. Purcell, S. Uthicke, J.F. Hamek & A. Mercier, eds. Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Management, pp. 25−38. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 463. Rome, FAO.
Chen, Y.H., Lee, W.C., Chen, C.C., Chen, Y. & Liao, I.C. 2006. Impact of externality on the optimal production of eel (Anguilla japonica) aquaculture in Taiwan. Aquaculture 257: 18−29.
Chou, R. & Lee, H.B. 1997. Commercial marine fish farming in Singapore. Aquaculture Research 28: 767−776.
COM. 2005. Proposal for a Council Regulation-establishing Measures for the Recovery of the Stock of European Eel. COM 472 Final, 2005/0201 (CNS). Commission of the European Communities. 11 pp.
Conand, C. & Tuwo, A. 1996. Commercial holothurians in South Sulawesi, Indonesia: fisheries and mariculture. SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin 8: 17−21.
Costa-Pierce, B.A. 1987. Aquaculture in ancient Hawaii. BioScience 38(5): 320−331.
Dao, M.S. 1999. Marine fish culture in Viet Nam. In A.S. Cabanban & M. Philips, eds. The aquaculture of Coral Reef Fishes. Proceedings of the workshop on aquaculture of coral reef fishes and sustainable reef fisheries 1996, pp. 144−152. Sabah, Malaysia.
Delmendo, M.N. 1989. Bivalve Farming: an Alternative Economic Activity for Small-scale Coastal Fishermen in the ASEAN Region. ASEAN/SF/89/Tech.11. ASEAN/UNDP/ FAO Regional Small-Scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project. Manila, Philippines. 45 pp.
De Silva, S.S. 1998. Tropical mariculture: current status and prospects. In S.S. De Silva, ed.
Tropical Mariculture, pp. 1−16. Academic Press, USA.
Doherty, P.J., Dufour, V., Galzin, R., Hixon, M.A., Meekan, M.G. & Planes, S. 2004.
High mortality during settlement is a population bottleneck for a tropical surgeonfish. Ecology 85(9): 2422–2428.
Dolmer, P., Kristensen, T., Christiansen, M.L., Petersen, M.F., Kristensen, P.S. & Hoffmann, E. 2001. Short-term impact of blue mussel dredging (Mytilus edulis L.) on a benthic community. Hydrobiologia 465: 115−127.
Edwards, P., Little, D.C. & Yakupitiyage, A. 1997. A comparison of traditional and modified inland artisanal aquaculture systems. Aquaculture Research 28: 777−788.
Ellis, S. & Haws, M. 1999. Producing Pearls Using the Black-lip Pearl Oyster (Pinctada margaritifera). Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture Publication No. 141.
Estudillo, C.B. & Duray, M.N. 2003. Transport of hatchery-reared and wild grouper larvae, Epinephelus sp. Aquaculture 219: 279−290.
FAL. 1986. Fisheries Act 1985 (No. 317 of 1985). FAL No. 35(2): 49−82.
FAO. 1997a. Review of the state of world aquaculture. FAO Fisheries Circular. No. 886, Rev.1. Rome, FAO. 163 pp.
FAO. 1997b. Aquaculture Development. FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries. No. 5. Rome, FAO. 40 pp.
FAO. 2002. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2002. Rome, FAO. 150 pp.
FAO. 2004. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2004. Rome, FAO. 153 pp.
FAO. 2006. Yearbook of fishery statistics 2004. Aquaculture production, Vol. 98/2 (Fisheries series No. 73 and statistics series No.191). Rome, FAO. 212 pp.
FAO. 2007. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2006. Rome, FAO. 162 p.
Fisheries (Riverine) Rules. 1990. Implements of Fisheries Act 1985 (No. 317 of 1985).
Official Publication: 144−150.
Fishery Status Reports. 2005. Australia Government, Bureau of Rural Sciences.
Fishery Status Reports. 2006. Australia Government, Bureau of Rural Sciences.
Gardner, C., Frusher, S., Mills, D. & Oliver, M. 2006. Simultaneous enhancement of rock lobster fisheries and provision of puerulus for aquaculture. Fisheries Research 80(1): 122−128.
Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana. 1996. Gazzetta Ufficiale della Repubblica Italiana No. 223: 13−17.
Gervis, M.H. & Sims, N.A. 1992. The Biology and Culture of Pearl Oysters (Bivalvia: Pteriidae). ICLARM Studies and Reviews 21. 49 pp.
Glude, J.B. 1982. The Potential for Seafarming in the Riau Archipelago District of Indonesia. SCS/82/WP/110. South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme. Manila, Philippines.
Hair, C., Bell, J. & Doherty, P. 2002. The use of wild-caught juveniles in coastal aquaculture and its application to coral reef fishes. In R.R. Stickney & J.P. McVey, eds. Responsible Marine Aquaculture, pp. 327−353. CAB International, New York.
Hair, C., Warren, R., Tewaki, A., Haro, C. & Phillips, W. 2004. Catching and rearing postlarval cleaner shrimp for the aquarium trade: results from a WorldFish Center project on Solomon Islands. Naga WorldFish Center Quarterly, 27(1/2): 42.
Heemstra, P.C. & Randall, J.E. 1993. FAO Species Catalogue. Vol. 16. Groupers of the world (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and lyretail species known to date.
FAO Species Synopsis. No. 125, Vol. 16. Rome, FAO. 382 pp.
Hickman, R.W. 1989. The Potential for Farming Green Mussels in the Federated States of Micronesia, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. GCP/RAS/116/JPN.
South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project. Suva, Fiji.
Hickman, R.W. 1992. Chapter 10: Mussel cultivation. In E. Gosling, ed. The Mussel Mytilus: Ecology, Physiology, Genetics and Culture, pp. 465−510. Elsevier Science
Publishers B.V., the Netherlands.
Hong, W.S. & Zhang, Q.Y. 2003. Review of captive bred species and fry production of marine fish in China. Aquaculture 227, 305−318.
Huang, G.M. 1998. Practicable Grouper Aquaculture. Fisheries Press, Taiwan. 87 pp.
Islam, M.M., Rahman, S.L., Halder, G.C., Mazid, M.A. & Mahmood, N. 1996. Extent of damage to different crustaceans and fin fishes in collecting Penaeus monodon (Fabricius) post-larvae in Satkhira coastal region. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of India 38 (1/2): 1−7.
Ivin, V.V., Kalashnikov, V.Z., Maslennikov, S.I. & Tarasov, V.G. 2006. Chapter 24: Scallops fisheries and aquaculture of northwestern Pacific, Russian Federation. In S.E. Shumway & G.J. Parsons, eds. Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture, pp. 1163−1224. Elsevier B.V., the Netherlands.
Jeffs, A.G., Holland, R.C., Hooker, S.H. & Hayden, B.J. 1999. Overview and bibliography of research on the greenshell mussel, Perna canaliculus, from New Zealand waters. Journal of Shellfish Research 18(2): 347−360.
Jia, J.S. & Chen, J.X. 2001. Sea Farming and Sea Ranching in China. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 418. Rome, FAO. 71 pp.
Juinio-Menez, M.A. & Gotanco, R.R. 2004. Status of spiny lobster resources of the Philippines. In K.C. Williams, ed. Spiny Lobster Ecology and Exploitation in the South China Sea Region. Proceedings of a workshop held at the Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Viet Nam, July 2004, pp. 3−6. ACIAR Proceedings No. 120. Canberra, Australia. 73 pp.
Keenan, C.P. & Blackshaw, A. 1999. Mud Crab Aquaculture and Biology. ACIAR Proceedings 78. Canberra. 216 pp.
Knights, B. 2003. A review of the possible impacts of long-term oceanic and climate changes and fishing mortality on recruitment of anguillid eels of the Northern Hemisphere. The Science of the Total Environment 310: 237−244.
Koenig, C.C. & Colin, P.L. 1999. Distribution, abundance and survival of juvenile gag grouper, Mycteroperca microlepis (Pisces: Serranidae), in seagrass beds of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 45: 37−54.
Korringa, P. 1976a. Farming the Flat Oysters of the Genus Ostrea. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, the Netherlands.
Korringa, P. 1976b. Farming Marine Fishes and Shrimps. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, the Netherlands.
Kosaka, Y. & Ito, H. 2006. Chapter 22: Japan. In S.E. Shumway & G.J. Parsons, eds. Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture, pp. 1093−1141. Elsevier B.V., the Netherlands.
Kumagai, S., Bagarinao, T. & Unggui, A. 1980. A Study on the Milkfish Fry Fishing Gears in Panay Island, Philippines. Technical Report No. 6. SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department. Iloilo, Philippines. 35 pp.
Le Vay, L. 2001. Ecology and management of mud crab Scylla spp. Asian Fisheries Science 14: 101−111.
Liao, I.C., Su, H.M. & Chang, E.Y. 2001. Techniques in finfish larviculture in Taiwan. Aquaculture 200: 1−31.
Lieng, S. & Hortle, K.G. 2005. Falling Vietnamese demand eases pressure on wild stock of catfish fry. Catch and Culture 11(3): 7–9.
Ling, S.W. 1977. Aquaculture in Southeast Asia: a Historical Overview. University of Washington Press, USA.
Lovatelli, A. 1987. Status of Scallop Farming: a Review of Techniques. NACA-SF/WP/87/1. 22 pp.
Lovatelli, A. 1988a. Status of Mollusc Culture in Selected Asian Countries. NACA-SF/WP/88/4.
Lovatelli, A. 1988b. Status of Oyster Culture in Selected Asian Countries. NACA-SF/ WP/88/2. 96 pp.
Lovatelli, A., Conand, C., Purcell, S., Uthicke, S., Hamek, J.F. & Mercier, A. 2004.
Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Management. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, No. 463. Rome, FAO. 425 pp.
Lutz, R.A. 1980. Mussel Culture and Harvest: a North American Perspective. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, the Netherlands. 350 pp.
Major, P.F. 1978. Aspects of estuarine intertidal ecology of juvenile striped mullet, Mugil cephalus, in Hawaii. Fishery Bulletin 76(2): 299−314.
Masuda, R. & Tsukamoto, K. 1998. Stock enhancement in Japan: review and perspective.
Bulletin of Marine Science 62: 337−358.
MEDRAP/TR. 1985. Mediterranean Regional Aquaculture Project-Marine Aquaculture Development in Egypt. Tunis.
MEGAPESCA. 2001. Marine Aquaculture in Egypt. Megapesca Lda. 29 pp.
Minh, T.H., Yakupitiyage, A. & Macintosh, D.J. 2001. Management of the Integrated Mangrove-aquaculture Farming Systems in the Mekong Delta of Viet Nam. ITCZM Monograph No. 1. 24 pp.
Miyai, T., Aoyama, J., Sasai, S., Inoue, J.G., Miller, M.J. & Tsukamoto, K. 2004. Ecological aspects of the downstream migration of introduced European eels in the Uono River, Japan. Environmental Biology of Fishes 71: 105−114.
Mohan Joseph, M. 1998. Chapter 10: Mussel and oyster culture in the tropics. In S.S. De Silva, ed. Tropical Mariculture, pp. 309−360. Academic Press, London.
Mous, P.J., Sadovy, Y., Halim, A. & Pet, J.S. 2006. Capture for culture: artificial shelters for grouper collection in SE Asia. Fish and Fisheries 7: 58−72.
Munro, J.L. & Bell, J.D. 1997. Enhancement of marine fisheries resources. Reviews in Fisheries Science 5(2): 185−222.
Naylor, R.L., Goldburg, R.J., Primavera, J.H., Kautsky, N., Beveridge, M.C.M., Clay, J., Folke, C., Lubchenco, J., Mooney, H. & Troell, M. 2000. Effect of aquaculture on wild fish supplies. Nature 405: 1017−1024.
National People’s Congress Order. 1991. Law on the Entry and Exit Animal and Plant Quarantine. National People’s Congress, Order No. 53. State Environmental Protection Administration, People’s Republic of China.
Nelson, J.S. 2006. Fishes of the World (4th edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New Jersey.
Nlewadim, A.A. & Deekae, S.N. 1997. Collection of juvenile mullet species from a brackishwater tidal farm in Nigeria. The ICLARM Quarterly 20(2): 19−20.
Norman, M., Román, G. & Strand, Ø. 2006. Chapter 20: European aquaculture. In S.E. Shumway & G.J. Parsons, eds. Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture, pp. 1059−1066. Elsevier B.V., the Netherlands.
Ottolenghi, F., Silvestri, C., Giordano, P., Lovatelli, A. & New, M.B. 2004. Capture-based Aquaculture. The Fattening of Eels, Groupers, Tunas and Yellowtails. Rome, FAO. 308 pp.
Park, B.H., Park, M.S., Kim, B.Y., Hur, S.B. & Kim, S.J. 1988. Culture of the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in the Republic of Korea. Seafarming Development and Demonstration Project, RAS/86/024.
Parsons, G.J. & Robinson, S.M.C. 2006. Chapter 16: Sea scallop aquaculture in the northeast Atlantic. In S.E. Shumway & G.J. Parsons, eds. Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture, pp 907−944. Elsevier B.V., the Netherlands.
Petersson, M. 2002. Wild Shrimp Seed Collection of Penaeus monodon in Godavari Estuary, Andhra Pradesh, India. Minor Field Study 74, Uppsala University, Sweden.
Phillips, B.F., Melville-Smith, R., Rossbach, M., Cheng, Y.W., Caputi, N., Thompson, A.W., Mills, D. & Crear, B. 2003. FRDC Project 1998/302-Rock Lobster Enhancement and Aquaculture Subprogram: Towards Establishing Techniques for Large Scale Harvesting of Pueruli and Obtaining a Better Understanding of Mortality Rates. Fisheries research report No. 144, Department of Fisheries, Western Australia. 138 pp.
Phillips, M.J., Lin, C.K. & Beveridge, M.C.M. 1993. Shrimp culture and the environment: lessons from the world’s most rapidly expanding warm water aquaculture sector.
In Environment and Aquaculture in Developing Countries, pp. 171−198. ICLARM Conference, Manila, Philippines.
Pickett, G.D. & Pawson, M.G. 1994. Sea bass: Biology, Exploitation and Conservation. Chapman & Hall, London. 337 pp.
Ponia, B., Napara, T., Ellis, M. & Tuteru, R. 2000. Manihiki Atoll black pearl farm census and mapping survey. SPC Pearl Oyster Information Bulletin 14: 4−10.
Pullin, R.S.V. 1993. An overview of environmental issues in developing-country aquaculture. In R.S.V. Pullin, H. Rosenthal & J.L. Maclean, eds. Environment and Aquaculture in Developing Countries. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 31. Manila, Philippines. 359 pp.
Rimmer, M.A. 2006. Regional Review on Existing Major Mariculture Species and Farming Technologies. FAO/NACA Regional Mariculture Workshop, 7−11 March 2006, Guangzhou, China.
Ringuet, S., Muto, F. & Raymakers, C. 2002. Eels: their harvest and trade in Europe and Asia. TRAFFIC Bulletin 19(2): 81−106.
Rosenberry, R. 2000. World shrimp farming 2000. Shrimp News International 13: 1−324.
Sadek, S. 2000. Sea bream culture in Egypt; status, constraints and potential. Fish Physiology and Biochemistry 22: 171−178.
Sadek, S. & Mires, D. 2000. Capture of wild finfish fry in Mediterranean coastal areas and possible impact on aquaculture development and marine genetic resources. The Israeli Journal of Aquaculture-Bamidgeh 52(2): 77−88.
Sadovy, Y. 2000. Regional Survey of Fry/Fingerling Supply and Current Practices for Grouper Mariculture: Evaluating Current Status and Long-term Prospects for Grouper Mariculture in Southeast Asia. Final Report to the Collaborative APEC Grouper Research and Development Network (FWG 01/99). 120 pp.
Sadovy, Y. & Pet, J. 1998. Wild collection of juveniles for grouper mariculture: just another capture fishery? Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin 4: 36−39.
Sadovy, Y. & Vincent, A.C.J. 2002. Chapter 18: Ecological issues and the trades in live reef fishes. In P.E. Sale, ed. Coral Reef Fishes: Dynamics and Diversity in a Complex Ecosystem, pp. 391?420. Academic Press, San Diego, USA.
Sadovy, Y., Kulbicki, M., Labrosse, P., Letourneur, Y., Lokani, P. & Donaldson, T.J. 2003. The humphead wrasse, Cheilinus undulatus: synopsis of a threatened and poorly known coral reef fish. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 13: 327?364.
Sadovy, Y., Punt, A.E., Cheung, W., Vasconcellos, M. & Suharti, S. 2007 (in review). Stock Assessment Approach for the Napoleon Fish, Cheilinus undulatus, in Indonesia: a Tool for Quota-setting for Data-poor Fisheries Under CITES Appendix II Non-detriment Finding Requirement. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 1023. Rome, FAO.
Sale, P.F. & Ferrell, D.J. 1988. Early survivorship of juvenile coral reef fishes. Coral Reefs 7: 117?124.
SAPB. 2002. Management Options for the Shrimp Fry Fishery: a Regional Stakeholder Workshop in Coxes Bazar. Shrimp Action Plan for Bangladesh, Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh. 25 pp.
Scott, N. & Tai, M. 1998. Mussel farming: an expanding industry in Shetland. North Atlantic Fisheries College, Fisheries Information Note 1: 1?4.
(http://www.enaca.org/modules/wfdownloads/singlefile.php?cid=71&lid=423). Smaal, A.C. & Lucas, L. 2000. Regulation and monitoring of marine aquaculture in the Netherlands. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 16: 187?191.
Starkie, A. 2003. Management issues relating to the European eel, Anguilla anguilla. Fisheries Management and Ecology 10: 361?364.
Southgate, P.C. & Beer, A.C. 1997. Hatchery and early nursery culture of the black pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera L.). Journal of Shellfish Research 16(2): 561?567. Sugiyama, S., Staples, D. & Funge-Smith, S.J. 2004. Status and Potential of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Asia and the Pacific. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. RAP Publication 2004/25. 53 pp.
Sutherland, I. 1996. Sea cucumber culture development on the west coast of Canada. SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin 8: 42?43.
TAFA. 1999–2004. Aquaculture Strategic Research Plan, 1999–2004. Tasmanian Fisheries and Aquaculture, Australia.
Tamaru, C.S., Tamaru, C.C.T., FitzGerald, W.J., Ako, H. & Sato, V. 2001. Advances in the Culture of the Striped Mullet Mugil cephalus. World Aquaculture Society. Tanaka, H. 1992. Sea cucumber culture in Japan. SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin 4: 18?20.
The Fisheries Secretariat. 2005. EU eel management (published: 15/11/2005, available http://www.fishsec.org/article.asp?CategoryID=1&ContextID=35). Stockholm, Sweden. Thuy, N.T.B. & Ngoc, N.B. 2004. Current status and exploitation of wild spiny lobsters in Vietnamese waters. In K.C. Williams, ed. Spiny Lobster Ecology and Exploitation in the South China Sea Region. Proceedings of a workshop held at the Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang, Viet Nam, July 2004, pp. 13?16. ACIAR Proceedings No. 120. Canberra, Australia. 73 pp.
Tiensongrusmee, B. & Pontjoprawiro, S. 1988a. Cockle Culture. INS/81/008/ Manual/12.
Tiensongrusmee, B. & Pontjoprawiro, S. 1988b. Sea Cucumber Culture: Potential and Prospects. INS/81/008/Manual/14.
Tisdell, C.A. & Poirine, B. 2000. Socio-economics of pearl culture: industry changes and comparisons focusing on Australia and French Polynesia. World Aquaculture 31(3): 30?60.
Tripathi, S.D. 1996. Present status of breeding and culture of catfishes in South Asia. Aquatic Living Resources 9: 219?228.
Trong, T.Q., Nguyan, V.H. & Griffiths, D. 2002. Status of the Pangasiid Aquaculture in Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper 2. Phnom Penh. 16 pp.
Tseng, W.Y. 1983. Prospects for commercial netcage culture of red grouper. Journal of World Mariculture Society 14: 650?660.
Tseng, W.Y. & Ho, S.K. 1988. The biology and culture of red grouper. Chien Cheng Publisher, Kaohsiung, ROC.
Tuan, L.A., Nho, N.T. & Hambrey, J. 2000. Status of cage mariculture in Viet Nam. In I.C. Liao & C.K. Lin, eds. Cage Aquaculture in Asia. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Cage Aquaculture in Asia, pp. 111?123. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines, and World Aquaculture Society-Southeast Asian Chapter, Bangkok, Thailand.
Tuan, L.A., Nho, N.T. & Hambrey, J. 2001. Seed supply for grouper cage culture in Khanh Hoa, Viet Nam. SPC Live Reef Fish Information Bulletin, 8: 33–36.
Tuwo, A. 2004. Status of sea cucumber fisheries and farming in Indonesia. SPC Beche-de mer Information Bulletin 19: 5.
Tzeng, W.N. 1997. Short- and long-term fluctuations in catches of elvers of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica, in Taiwan. In D.A. Hancock, D.C. Smith, A. Grant & J.P. Beumer, eds. Developing and Sustaining World Fisheries Resources, the State of Science and Management, pp. 85?89. The 2nd World Fisheries Congress, CSIRO, Brisbane, Australia.
UNEP/MAP. 2004. Mariculture in the Mediterranean. United Nations Environment Programme. Mediterranean Action Plan. MAP Technical Reports Series No. 140. 50 pp. Ungson, J.R. 1990. The fry fishery of Ilocos Norte, Philippines. In R. Hirano & I. Hanyu, eds. The 2nd Asian Fisheries Forum, pp. 777?780. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines. 991 pp.
Uwate, K.R. 1988. Viable Aquaculture Technologies in the Pacific Islands Region. IPFC WPA/WP 18.
Uwate, K.R., Kunatuba, P., Raobati, B. & Tenakanai, C. 1984. A review of Aquaculture Activities in the Pacific Islands Region. Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Van Ginneken, V.J.T. & Maes, G.E. 2005. The European eel (Anguilla anguilla, Linnaeus), its lifecycle, evolution and reproduction: a literature review. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 15: 367?398.
Van Zalinge, N., Lieng, S., Ngor, P.B., Heng, K. & Valbo-Jorgensen, J. 2002. Status of the Mekong Pangasianodon hypophthalmus Resources, with Special Reference to the Stock Shared Between Cambodia and Viet Nam. MRC Technical Paper 1. Phnom Penh. 29 pp.
Virvilis, C. & Angelidis, P. 2006. Presence of the parasite Marteilia sp. in the flat oyster (Ostrea edulis L) in Greece. Aquaculture 259: 1?5.
Vita, R. & Marin, A. 2007. Environmental impact of capture-based bluefin tuna aquaculture on benthic communities in the western Mediterranean. Aquaculture Research 38: 331?339.
Von Brand, E., Merino, G.E., Abarca, A. & Stotz, W. 2006. Chapter 27: Scallop fishery and aquaculture in Chile. In S.E. Shumway & G.J. Parsons, eds. Scallops: Biology, Ecology and Aquaculture, pp. 1293?1314. Elsevier B.V., the Netherlands.
Wang, R.B. & Cheng, Y. 2004. Breeding and culture of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin 19: 16.
Wee, K.L. 1981. Snakehead (Channa striatus) Farming in Thailand. NACA/WP/81/3. Bangkok, Thailand.
Wilson, K.D.P. 1997. The Hong Kong marine fish culture industry-challenges for sustainable development. In B.W. Darvel, ed. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium of Marine Conservation in Hong Kong, pp. 86?97.
Wirth, T. & Bernatchez, L. 2001. Genetic evidence against panmixia in the European eel. Nature 409: 1037?1039.
Wu, R.S.S. 1995. The environmental impact of marine fish culture: towards a sustainable future. Marine Pollution Bulletin 31: 159?166.
Zheng, W.B. 1994. Chapter 10: Special types of aquaculture. In S.F. Li & J. Mathias, eds. Freshwater Fish Culture in China: Principles and Practice, pp. 347?385. Elsevier Science B.V., the Netherlands.