Social and economic impacts of capture-based aquaculture

Robert Pomeroy
University of Connecticut–Avery Point
Connecticut, United States of America
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Pomeroy, R. 2008. Social and economic impacts of capture-based aquaculture. In A. Lovatelli and P.F. Holthus (eds). Capture-based aquaculture. Global overview. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 508. Rome, FAO. pp. 41–66.

SUMMARY

This paper reviews the social and economic impacts of capture-based aquaculture, and specifically the capture of early life-history phase animals from the wild for use as seed material in marine and freshwater grow-out. The considerations and impacts highlight the overlap of capture fisheries and aquaculture in capture-based aquaculture. Capture-based aquaculture has social and economic advantages and disadvantages compared to full cycle aquaculture. In many situations, especially in developing countries, capture-based aquaculture can provide income and livelihoods to sectors of the population that may otherwise be excluded from aquaculture. However, it can also result, among others, in conflict and the loss of societal benefits from the loss in yield from the wild stocks. Markets have been the driving force behind the development of the capture-based aquaculture industry as the selection of species for culture reflects demand in local and international markets and consumer’s tastes and preferences.

It is expected that markets will continue to drive development in the future. It is anticipated that capture-based aquaculture will continue to expand in the short-term, both for those finfish and non-finfish species currently being cultured and possibly with others that may be selected for aquaculture in the future. Other economic issues include costs and profitability (private and social), market channels and externalities. Social issues include employment, livelihoods, rural development, property rights, conflicts, technology, culture/traditions, ethical opinions and public participation. The main constraint to expansion is “seed” supply. Wild seed supply has not been able to keep up with the increasing demand from farms. The capture of wild seed is being increasingly regulated. It is important that means be found to rear these species throughout their full life
cycle that are economically viable. Farmers will also need to reduce their production costs to meet changing market demands. Any future expansion of capture-based aquaculture will also need to address potential damage to the environment caused by its activities and regulate itself in a more sustainable manner. In all cases, there will be positive and negative social and economic impacts that will need to be managed more strategically.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture is seen as a solution and alternative to meet current and future demand for aquatic products. However, many aquaculture practices still need considerable refinement to make them more sustainable and to reduce their dependence on wild fisheries stocks and to avoid harming aquatic habitats (Naylor et al., 2000). Major constraints in the development of sustainable aquaculture include the continuing dependence on small low value or bycatch fish, commonly called trash fish, for feed, and environmental impacts such as nutrient discharge into coastal waters. Another constraint is the capture of early life-history phase (ELP) animals (i.e. settlement stage larvae, fry, fingerlings and juveniles) or “seed material” from the wild for grow-out to market size in aquaculture facilities (Mous et al., 2006). Sustainable access to fry and fingerlings can constitute a significant constraint to aquaculture development. This practice has been called “capture-based aquaculture” to address the overlap between capture fisheries and aquaculture (Ottolenghi et al., 2004). This activity is reported in FAO statistics as aquaculture rather than capture fisheries even though it depends on seed supply from the wild rather than from hatcheries.
Capture-based aquaculture has developed due to the market demand for some high value species whose life cycles cannot currently be closed on a commercial scale. In addition, the hatchery production of many cultured species is still well below demand and is constrained by poor and unreliable survival of larvae in hatcheries. Supplies of fry and fingerlings of many cultured species taken from the wild have declined and these declines are likely caused by overfishing, habitat destruction, destructive fishing practices, pollution, high export demand and high mortality of captured fry. Examples of such capture-based aquaculture include tuna (Thunnus spp.) in Australia, Japan, Canada, Spain, Mexico, Croatia, Italy, Malta, Morocco and Turkey; milkfish (Chanos chanos) in the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Indonesia; eels (Anguilla spp.) in Asia, Europe, Australia, and North America; grouper (Epinephelus spp.) in Asia; and settlement phase reef fish for the marine aquarium trade (Ahmed et al., 2001; Hair, Bell and Doherty, 2002; Ringuet, Muto and Raymakers, 2002; Phillips, Melville-Smith and Cheng, 2003; Miyake, Miyabe and Nakono, 2004; Ottolenghi et al., 2004; Mous et al., 2006).
The purpose of this paper is to review the social and economic impacts of capture based aquaculture, and specifically the capture of ELP animals from the wild for use as seed material in marine and freshwater grow-out. The considerations and impacts highlight the overlap of capture fisheries and aquaculture in capture-based aquaculture. Markets have been the driving force behind the development of the capture-based aquaculture industry as the selection of species for culture reflects demand in local and international markets, and consumer’s tastes and preferences. Other economic issues include costs and profitability (private and social), market channels, and externalities. Social issues include employment, livelihoods, rural development, property rights, conflicts, technology, culture/traditions, ethical opinions and public participation. These issues and their impacts will be discussed in this paper.